A paratha is a flatbread that originated in India. Parathas are made in every house. Every home as its own way or method of making parathas. Basically, parathas are a category of unleavened indian breads made with whole wheat flour or atta. there are also stuffed parathas like aloo paratha, gobi paratha, mooli paratha and paneer paratha which i make oftenIt is still quite prevalent throughout the area. Paratha is an amalgamation of the words parat and atta which literally means layers of cooked dough. Alternative spellings and names include paratha, parauntha, prontha, parontay, porota (in Bengali), palata (pronounced: [pəlàtà]; in Burma), and farata (in Sri Lanka and the Maldives).

It is one of the most popular unleavened flat breads in the South Asian subcontinent and is made by pan frying whole wheat dough on a tava. The paratha dough usually contains ghee or cooking oil which is also layered on the freshly prepared paratha.

Usually parathas are served with a rich gravy dish like paneer butter masala, punjabi chole, malai kofta, dal makhani or shahi paneer, non-veg curries, keemas. Parathas also goes well with lemon or mango pickle or you can have them with a cup of hot tea too. Some people like to dip them in tea and then enjoy eating them.

Sometimes paratha are stuffed with boiled potatoes (as in aloo ka paratha), leaf vegetables, radishes, cauliflower, and/or paneer (Cottage-cheese). A paratha (especially a stuffed one) can be eaten simply with a pat of butter spread on top, with chutney, pickles, and yogurt, or with meat or vegetable curries. Some roll the paratha into a tube and eat it with tea, often dipping the paratha.

The paratha can be round, heptagonal, square, or triangular. When it is round, the stuffing is mixed with the kneaded flour, and the paratha is prepared in the same way as roti, but in the latter two forms, the peda (ball of kneaded flour) is flattened into a circle, the stuffing is kept in the middle, and the flatbread is closed around the stuffing like an envelope. The latter two also vary in that they have discernible soft layers, with one "opening" to the crispier shell layers.

References: wikipedia, vegrecipesofindia.com, about.com.

Introduction

Penny Cuick was born on 15 January 1841 at Camberley (situated in Pune), a younger son of Brigadier-General John Penny Cuick and his wife Sarah. His father and eldest brother, Alexander, fought and died at the Battle of Chillianwalla in 1849.

Penny Cuick was educated at Cheltenham College. He was a British Army engineer and civil servant who served as a member of the Madras Legislative Council when India was under Colonial rule of British East India Company.

Penny Cuick married Grace Georgina Chamier in 1879. Their son, Sir John Penny Cuick, became an English barrister and High Court judge.

Penny Cuick undertook several irrigation works which included the masonry dam of Mullaiperiyar on the Periyar River.

Career

Penny Cuick entered the East India Company Military College at Addiscombe, Surrey, in 1857, and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Madras Engineer Group in December 1858. He arrived in India on 11 November 1860.

Penny Cuick became a Second Captain on 15 October 1870; and a major on 8 December 1876. He commanded H company at Zoulla during the Abyssinian campaign of 1868. On 10 October 1895 the Queen nominated him a Companion of the Order of the Star of India. He served in the Public Works Department till January 1896. During his six years of service in the PWD, Penny Cuick served as Chief Engineer in the construction of the Mullaperiyar Dam and was awarded a medal for his participation in Abyssinian Expedition of 1867-68.

Penny Cuick was nominated to the Madras Legislative Council in November 1893. He was the last president of the Royal Indian Engineering College at Coopers Hill. He also held the position of President of the Sanitary Board and was a faculty in the University of Madras. He received a Telford medal from the Institution of Civil Engineers. The Australian government sought his advice for avoiding damage from flooding of the Brisbane river in 1899. He was also a keen cricketer. Check his profile in espncricinfo.

Mullaiperiyar Dam

One day, Penny Cuick was going through the geographical map of the above area, he saw a big  river at the top of the hill (2890 feet above sea level). The river (called as Periyar River) was going waste through mountains and finally ended in the Arabian Sea. Hence, Penny Cuick decided to divert the west-flowing Periyar (river)'s culmination in the Arabian Sea towards the East so that it could irrigate lakhs of acres of dry land depending only on Vaigai river.

Though Penny Cuick and other British Engineers went ahead with the construction, braving the nature's fury and the dangers of poisonous insects and wild animals, the construction works were disrupted by relentless rain. Large number of sand bags kept for the construction of the dam was destroyed due to severe flood. Since he could not get adequate funds from the British government, Penny Cuick went to England and sold his family property to mobilise money to fund the project (Citation Needed), which was completed in 1895.

The dam was inaugurated by Lord Wenlock, the then Governor of the Madras Presidency. It resulted in irrigation of 2.23 lakh acres in Theni, Dindigul, Madurai, Sivaganga and Ramanathapuram districts.

Penny Cuick used lime and surki paste for construction, taking into consideration the gravitational force: this allows the dam to withstand tremors and remain strong. Penny Cuick said: "I am going to be only once in this earthly world, hence I need to do some good deeds here. This deed should not be prorogue nor ignored since I am not going to be here again"

For his Remembrance

=> The Public Works Department Office at Madurai houses a statue of Penny Cuick.

=> A memorial to Penny Cuick at the Lower Camp in Theni district was unveiled in January 2013.

=> A new bus terminus in Theni was named after him in December 2013.

=> At Balarpatti, Kutchanoor and Kuzhiyanur in Theni district, Penny Cuick is remembered during the celebration of the traditional Thai Pongal harvest festival.

=> Many of the farmer families of the Theni and Madurai districts still keep portraits of Penny Cuick.

=> Many children in this area are named after him.

Below photographs shows Penny Cuick's House

Refererence

HISTORY OF PONNAPPA NADAR - A STUDY
-P.L.Subila
Preface
Thiruvithancore, which was a part of Cheranadu was under the rule of
Tamil Kings at the initial stages. Latter it changed into Malayalee rule. Namboodries
have introduced Marumakkal vazhi Manmiyam to reduce the authority of Tamil
Kings and the powers of Tamil Kings were diminished and were replaced by
Malayali Kings. Because of this, the Tamil peoples were put to untold miseries. They
were treated like less than animals. To my research view, it is like the miseries of the
Israel people who suffered as slaves under the rule of Parvone King in Egypt.
Likewise the Tamil people suffered in their own country. Many wise men tried to
liberate these people. To be specific, the foreign Christian priests, the Indian
incarnations like Vaikunda swami, Narayanaguru, Iyangali, Pulippanam
Isakkimadan have struggled individually and through some organisations. Lastly,
Kumari Thanthai Marshal Nesamani waged war through Thiruvithancore Tamilnadu
Congress and succeeded the final victory and liberated the oppressed and in particular
the Tamil people. Thiru. Ponnappa Nadar stood in shoulder to shoulder status while
being served as a junior in legal profession to Marshal Nesamani and participated in
the agitations with clean and honest hands. The agitational life of Thiru. Ponnappa
Nadar is taken up for a research.
Aim
To disclose how Venadu, a part of Cheranadu changed into
Thiruvithancore, how the sons of soil of Thiruvithancore suffered under the atrocities
of Malayalis, how the Malayalam reigned over the Tamil language, how the ruling
Tamils were changed into slaves, how they waged war to liberate themselves from the
oppressive sufferings and above all how the Kumari Komethagam Ponnappa2
Nadar waged his struggled life in the joint fight along with Marshal Nesamani, the
founder of Thiruvithancore Tamilnadu Congress, are all the aim of this research.
The field of research
Cheranadu was one of the countries ruled by the triple kings. Venadu
was a part of Cheranadu. Thiruvithancore is an expansion of Venadu. All the Tamil
parts of Thiruvithancore such as Kumari District, Nedumangadu, Neyyatinkarai,
Devikulam and Peermedu, where the Tamils struggled are adopted as the field of
research.
Adopted Tactics
Historical books, the dailies Dinamalar and Thinathanthi and
interviews with sacrificers are the inputs to the research, besides the interviews and
collections from the home of Ponnappa Nadar.
The Approach
Explanatory research approach is adopted with historical examples in
this research.
Documents
Collection of news for the research is an important task. The collected
documents can be divided into two parts.
1. Primary Sources
2. Secondary Sources3
1. Primary Sources
The primary sources are inducted from the Thiruvithancore Gazetteer,
Thiruvithancore State Manual, Old age scripts, the order of Kings, Assembly and
Parliament recordings.
2. Secondary Sources
The secondary sources are inducted from the dailies, short books, the
home of Ponnappa Nadar, his relatives and from the sacrificers.
Informants
The informations are collected from the sacrificers.
Tools used
To record the collected information, cardboards, pen and tape recorders
are used.
Language of the research
This research is written in English. However, Tamil and Malayalam
words are used in some places in English alphabet, but in the respective accent.
Research segregation
This research is segregated into 7 parts. In the first part, it contains
preface, research heading, explanatory notes, aim, field, tactics, approach, tools used
and the language of the research.4
In the second part, research was carried out about the geographical
status and the boundary of Thiruvithancore, the kings, the good things they did and
the forts they constructed. In the part which deals with the agitations of Tamils and the
organization, the research was made as to how the Tamil was replaced by Malayalam;
the sufferings of the Tamils by this imposition and how this oppressed class struggled
through the agitations.
In the youth part, the parents of Ponnappa Nadar, his places of
education, his friends, his ability, his marriage and how he had reformed himself as
Kumari Komethagam (Kumari Sardonyx) are dealt with.
The agitation was held under the leadership of Kumarithanthai
Nesamani. Thousands of cadres and hundreds of leaders took part in the agitations. At
the peak, some persons deserted and joined in other parties. But Ponnappa Nadar
remained a staunch fighter with Nesamani till the end. He remained to be a most
reliable person. Maya Ponnappan was another name he earned. The above details are
dealt with in the part “the role of Ponnappa Nadar in the agitations of Tamils”.
After his acquiring the degree in Law, he joined as a junior to Marshal
Nesamani. He was a man of extreme patience. He used to file cases only after getting
thorough information from the client. Generally his submissions to the court would be
very polite and calm in support of his clients. He conducted cases to the Tamil
agitators without collecting any fee. He took up honest cases only. Most of the cases
ended a victory to him. Generally he used to compromise by negotiating between both
the parties. Such legal related matters are dealt with in the part “Ponnappa Nadar as an
Advocate”.
The seventh part is the conclusion. The facts disclosed in the research
are compiled and cogently given in this part.
The Annexure contains the list of persons who were interviewed and
the reference books. At the end of each part, the collected news and facts are given in
concise form. The notes marked in each page are given at the bottom of the page.5
Geographical status and the Kings of Thiruvithancore
Geographical status
In ancient days Tamil was the spoken language in the entire Kumari
Kandam which was submerged under the sea by tsunami. Kanyakumari District is one
among the balance part of the land. After the submerging of the Kumari Kandam
under the sea, the newly formed Himalayas was conquered and ruled by the Chera
Kings.
“Thenkumari vada perunkal,
Kuna kuda kadala ellai”.
(Kurunkozhiyur Kizhar- Purananooru- Ka.e)
From the above poem in Purananooru, it is evident that the Tamil areas
were bound North by Himalayas, South by Kumari, and East and West by Sea.
Cheran was the first to enter Himalayas. Hence he was conferred with
the title “Imayavaramban”.
(Purananooru- ka. e)
After the arrival of Ariyar, the boundary of Tamil areas was North by
Venkadam, South by Kumari and East and West by Seas. Tamil area was divided into
13 zones at that time. They are: Pandi, Thenpandi, Kuttam, Kudam, Karka, Venn,
Poozhi, Pantri, Aruva, Aruva vadathalai, Seetham, Maladu and Punnadu.
Poozhi or sand laden area is considered as the part extending from
Alappuzhai river bank to Ponnali river estuary of present day Kerala. This is sand6
laden flat surface. Kudam or Kudanadu extended from Ponnali river estuary to the
southern end of Periyar River estuary near Ernakulam.
Kuttam or land of backwater is the area covering from the present day
Kottayam to Quilon. Kuttanadu, the granary of present day Kerala State is situated in
this land area. Ven or Venadu is situated south of Kuttam and it extends from south of
Quilon up to Kanyakumari. Valleys and small mountains in this area consist of full of
bamboo forests. Ven denotes the bamboo. Hence, Venadu means a place brimming
with bamboo forests. Karka or land with rocks is situated east of Kudanadu. The hilly
area of present day Vayanad District of Kerala and Coodalure area of Tamilnadu falls
under the Karkanadu.
Hence it is evident that the ancient Cheranadu consisted of the area
between the Western range of mountains and Arabian Sea which covered a vast area
of Boominadu, Kudanadu, Kuttanadu, Karkanadu, Venadu, Kongunadu, Cheethanadu
and Pantrinadu.
One among the above is the Venadu comprising Kanyakumari District.
Venadu
Venadu means a country with full of bamboos. It also derived its name
as it contained thirst quenching toddy. There is yet another reason of deriving the
name as this area was ruled by a society of people called Vells. The Vells were the
small area Kings under the rule of Chera Kings.
Elanthottam Sugumaran had given a different definition to Venadu that
it got its name as it was ruled by the Kings who were the descendants of Lord
Muruga.
This Venn Nadu got its name of Venadu in due course.7
The areas covering the present day Kanyakumari District,
Thiruvananthapuram District and certain part of Quilon District is denoted as Venadu.
Venadu was the area between Quilon and Athancode as noted by
Yavanar.
As per the recording of Kanakasabai, the area south of Kuttanadu up to
Kanyakumari was known as Venadu. The area between Quilon and
Thiruvananthapuram was Venadu as per another claim.
Of these, the findings of Sreedara Menon are acceptable.
The capital of Venadu was Kalkulam. There is a fort at Kalkulam. It
was known as Kalkulam Fort. Anantha Padmanaban was the Chief of Army at the
beginning of the ruler Marthandavarma Maharaja. The above fort was built in his
name and then changed as Padmanaban Fort in his memory.
How Venadu transformed into Thiruvithancore
The credit of the creation of Thiru Koorai fully goes to the King
Marthandavarma. He brought the areas of Senkottai, Kottarakarai, Quilon, Kottayam,
Kayankulam, Ambalakarai and Nedumangadu under his control and expanded his
country from Kanyakumari to Kochi.
The name of Venadu was changed as Thiruvithancore. Later it was
changed as Thiruvancode and then as Thiru + Ayan + Kodu and in due course it
became Thirivithancode. It was called as Thiruvancore in English from the Sanskrit
word Sree Vazhum Code. The definition of Sreedara menon claims the English name
Travancore was derived from the original Malayalam word Thiruvithancore.
The word Thiru + Athan + Code – Thirivithancode was called as
Thiruvithancore by the British. Professor M.A.Nathaneal found that Kanyakumari is8
the southern part of Thiruvithancore. Kumari remained world famous from the pre-
ancient days. Tholcopium says it as:
Vadavengadam thenkumari auidai
Thamizhkooru nallulahathu
Purananuru says:
Vadaa athu panittu neduvarai vadakkum
Thenaa athu uruhezhu kumaryin therkum (-6)
Thenkumari vada perungal
Kuna kuda kadalavellai
(-17)
Kumarium perunthurai ayirai manthi
(-67)
Thenkumari vada perungal
Kuna kuda kadalavellai
Thontru mozhinthu thozhil ketpa
This district remained a part of Thiruvithancore. The Tamilians were
oppressed by the Government and by the high caste peoples. They suffered mental
agony and struggled under the leadership of Marshal Nesamani and at the end joined
with the Tamilnadu state. There were claims from some leaders to merge this part
with Thirunelveli and name it after Nesamani or as Nanjil District. But Nesamani
wanted it to be named as Kanyakumari District and conveyed this to Kamarajar, the
then Chief Minister of Tamilnadu. Kamarajar had fulfilled the desire of Nesamani.
Kanyakumari District was born thus with the annexing of a part of Senkottai Taluk.9
KINGS WHO RULED THIRUVITHANCORE
The Kings who ruled Thiruvithancore can be divided into ancient
Kings and recent Kings.
ANCIENT KINGS:-
Ayyanadigalar
Ayyanadigalar is known as the first king among Venadu Kings. He
came to rule in 849 A.D. He permitted to construct a Christian Church at ‘Kurakeni
Kollam’.
Marthanda
Govarthan Marthanda was the next King. His name finds a place in the
yutha copper inscriptions of Baskara Ravivarma in 1000 A.D.
Ravivarman
Ravivarman, popularly called as Samkrada Ravivarman made Quilon
as his capital. His tenure of reign is considered as the golden period of Venadu history.
He was the last king in the monarchy of patrilineal hierarchy.
Veera Udaya Marthandavarma
After the death of Ravivarma, Veera Udaya Marthandavarma became
the King in the year 1314. He was the first king in the matrilineal monarchy. This kind
of rule extended up to the 20 th century.10
Adithyavarman
After Udaya Marthandavarman, Adithyavarman became the king. He
was called as Adithyavarma savang kanatha. He ruled from the year 1376 to1383.
His war and knowledge achievements find place in one of the stone inscriptions at the
Srikrishna temple, Vadaseri. Another stone inscription at the Sripadmanaba temple,
Thiruvananthapuram, contain notings about him and the construction of Srikrishnan
temple by him
Chera Udaya Marthandavarman
After Adithyavarman, Chera Udaya Marthandavarman accepted the
throne in the year 1318 and ruled up to the year 1444. His rule is considered the
longest rule in the history of Venadu.
Veera Marthandavarman
Veera Marthandavarman accepted the throne in the year 1516. He built
a fort at Kallidaikurichi and named it as Veera Marthanda Sathurvethimangalam.
He also donated enough land to the Jain temple at Nagercoil. He
exempted the Christian Fishermen from the imposed tax on them. At the latter part of
his rule, the Vijayanagara King waged a war against Venadu. Vijayanagara army had
defeated the King of Venadu at the bank of Thamirabarani River and seized some part
from him.
The siege of Thirumalainaickar
At the latter part of 16 th century, the Naicker rule became stronger.
Viswanatha Naicken had created the family of Naicka Kings. He defeated the Pandia
King in the year 1553 and victoriously led his army up to the border of Nanjilnadu. In
the year 1662, an army under the leadership of Thirumalainaicker entered the eastern
border of Venadu to annex a part of Nanjilnadu. Naicker army had seized some parts11
of Nanjilnadu. Ravikuttipillai, one of the ministers of the King of Venadu was
beheaded in this war.
Umayammai Rani as a regent
As Ravivarman, the legal heir of Venadu throne was minor;
Umayammai Rani was crowned as a regent in the year 1677 and continued up to
1684. During her reign, Kalkulam was the capital of Venadu.
During her reign, a Mogul Sardar had siege the southern part of
Venadu and seized the part up to Thiruvananthapuram. Umayammai Rani had sought
the help of Kottayam monarchy. Keralavarman, belonging to that family had extended
a helping hand. In the war held at Thiruvattar, Mogul Sardar was killed and peace
returned to Venadu.
Ravivarman
Ravivarman became major and accepted throne in the year 1684, and it
was the end of regency rule of Umayammai Rani.
Adithyavarman
Adithyavarman came to rule in the year 1718 after Ravivarman.
Ramavarman
Ramavarman became the ruler in the year 1721. His next heir
Marthandavarman entered into an agreement with Naickers on behalf of Ravivarman
to build a fort to the British East India Company.
Marthandavarma
Marthandavarma became the king of Venadu in the year 1729. At that
time, Venadu has a vast expand up to Varkalai in the north and Nagercoil in the south.12
Venadu was called as Thiruvithancore from the rule of Marthandavarman. He named
his place of residence as Padmanabapuram. Starting from the year 1729, he
developed his country in a span of 27 years to the first place among other countries in
India. Ananthapadmanaban Nadar from Pachanvilai in Kannanur was the Chief of
Army to him and he remained in support for the expansion of the country and to
suppress the civil revolt. He died in the year 1758.
Dharmaraja
Dharmaraja was also called as Ramavarma. He became the ruler after
Marthandavarma. He died in the year 1798 at the age of 74.
Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali had dethroned the king of Mysore and appointed himself as
the king of Mysore. He annexed the west coastal part up to Kochi with his country.
Balaramavarma
During his tenure Veluthambi was the Dewan and after him
Umminithambi became Dewan. Balaramavarma died in the year 1810 on which the
dark days of Thiruvithancore history came to an end.
RECENT KINGS
Rani Gowri Lakshmibai
After the death of Balaramavarma, Rani Gowri Lakshmibai became the
ruler as he had no male heir. Mantro got appointment as Dewan.
Gowri Parvathi Bai13
Rani Gowri Lakshmibai died in the year 1815. After that her sister
Gowri Parvathi Bai became the ruler and ruled the country up to the year 1829.
Swathi Thirunal Ramavarma
During his reign of 18 years, he made many achievements. His tenure
of rule was considered as the Golden Days in the history of Thiruvithancore. He died
in December 1846.
Uthiram Thirunal
After Swathi Thirunal, his youngest brother Uthiram Thirunal
Marthandavarma got the throne. During his tenure of rule, not only the country
improved in all respects but also the people lived in peace and ecstasy. He died in the
year 1860.
Ayilyam Thirunal
Ayilyam Thirunal Maharaja came to power in the year 1860.
Madavarao was the Dewan during the tenure of Uthiram Thirunal and he continued to
remain as Dewan during his rule also. Because of difference of opinion with the king,
Madavarao resigned as Dewan and left the country in the year 1872. Ayilyam Thirunal
Maharaja died in the year1880.
Sri Moolam Thirunal
Sri Moolam Thirunal Ramavarma became the king of Thiruvithancore
in the year1855. He had the good opportunity to rule the country for nearly 40 years.
During his long rule, peace and non-quarrel prevailed in the entire country. He died in
the year 1924.14
Sethu Lakshmibai
Sethu Lakshmibai got the throne after Sri Moolam Thirunal. She ruled
the country only for 7 years but these years remained a heart filled joy.
Sri Chithirai Thirunal
Sri Chithirai Thirunal Balaramavarman got the throne in November
1931. When India got independence in the year 1947, the people of Thiruvithancore
left the monarchy and joined the Indian federal rule. In 1 st July 1949, he took charge
as Governor of this new country.15
REASONS FOR THE AGITATIONS OF THIRUVITHANCORE TAMILS
AND THE ORGANISATIONS
Reasons for the agitations of Thiruvithancore Tamils:-
Marumakkal Vazhi Manmiyam
Venadu was a part of Cheranadu. Thiruvithancore was the growth of
Venadu. Because of the arrival of Ariyar in Thiruvithancore, the patrilineal hierarchy
rule was replaced by matrilineal hierarchy rule.
The first reason for the fall of Tamils was the Marumakkal Vazhi
Manmiyam. A new hierarchy called Marumakkal Thaya Murai was introduced in
Thiruvithancore for the fall of Tamilian rule. Giving up of one’s right of property to
the sister’s son or daughter was known as Marumakkal Thaya Murai
Ariya Namboodris had created the above method. But they belong to
Patrilineal hierarchy. According to Historians such as P.T. Srinivasa Iyangar,
Ilamkulam Kunjampillai and Ilanthottam K. Sugumaran, Marumakkal Thaya Murai
was introduced in Kerala in the 11 th Century. Ilanthottam K. Sugumaran has also said
that Marumakkal Thaya Murai was an arrangement with more than one husband.
During the tenure of Aditya Varma in the year1304, the matrilineal descendency was
accepted by the Thiruvithancore royal family. Veera Udaya Marthandavarma who
ruled between the years 1314 to 1344 was crowned as the first king under the
Marumakkal Thaya Murai. It was the fall of the rule of Chera Kings.
This had paved the way for the creation of a culture, many husbands
for one woman by setting aside the one woman for one man culture.
The Nair and Vellalar communities which accepted the matrilineal
hierarchy had considered the other communities, who refused to accept this method,
such as Nadar, Fishermen, Parayar etc.,as despicable.16
Marumakkal Thayam
Marumakkal Thayam means the hierarchy through nephews. That is
one’s sister’s children are considered as his heirs in this method. The introduction of
this method was the aftermath of the many husbands culture. The mother of a child
can be a sure thing, but in the case of many husbands, the father could not be
confirmed and this situation brought into practice the Marumakkal Thayam. The
family which followed the Marumakkal Thayam was called Tharavadu. All the heirs
of a woman jointly lived in a single house in Tharavadu. Generally they eat at a
single kitchen. Properties were administered by the eldest son of that family. He was
called as karanavan. Some important castes in Thiruvithancore followed this method.
Generally the Nairs and a part of Ezhavas followed this. There was lot of defects seen
in this method. Because of this, strong oppositions erupted in due course in the
families which followed this method. Difference of opinion developed between the
wife of karanavan and sisters and quarrels started. Further accuse developed against
the karanavan for his act of dictatorship. Another accuse arose that the wife of
karanavan, called as Ammayee had rightfully taken away the revenue from the
Tharavadu property to her and to her children.
Alphens Nathaniel says that the introduction of Marumakkal Thayam
in the place of patrilineal hierarchy in Cheranadu not only damaged the habits and
culture of Tamils but also paved way for the newly created mixed language of Tamil
and Samaskritham to become the ruling language.
PIDAGAI
Pidagai method
Marthandavarma had submitted his country to his family God Sri
Padmanabaswamy on 3-1-1750. He called himself as Padmanabadasan. During his
tenure, Thiruvithancore state was divided into four parts viz. Padmanabapuram,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam and Cherthalai. These parts were further divided into 32
Thaluks and 245 Pidagais.17
Duties of Pidagaimen
National council of Pidagaimen
The duty of this council was to monitor whether the low caste people
are regularly abiding the restrictions imposed on them. The members of this council
were the Pillaimars called Nanjilnattu Nairs. Nearly 200 persons were members of
this council representing two or three persons from each village. They assembled in
December of each year at the time of Suchindram temble car festival and discuss
about the caste rules and decisions arrived. They used to take the law into their hands
and imposed harsh punishments to the people who violated the caste rules. Many
times they ordered death sentence to the accused. The Pidagai council was very
powerful that even the Kings were unable to act to their wishes. At this time Karnal
Mantro was appointed as Dewan by Rani Gowri Lakshmibai.
Mantro, not only an English representative but also served as Dewan,
had introduced drastic changes in the Thiruvithancore administration which brought
in a situation of social reformation. At the time of his taken over of charge, large scale
misuse of authority and dishonesty were rampantly prevailed in all the departments.
He wanted to bring in an honest government by eliminating the lapses and to protect
the life and property of the people. As a first step to reform the government, he
abolished the posts of Valia Sarvathikariyakarar and Sarvathikariyakarar. He had
withdrawn the power to deliver justice and tax collection power only was given to the
Kariyakarar. They were not called as Kariyakarar but their designation changed as
Thahasildar. For every five important places he created Zillah Courts and formed a
Court of Appeal and thus reformed the judiciary. He established a separate Huzur
Court to enquire the Government employees. He traveled throughout the country and
found out the wrong doing officials and imposed punishments. Because of his strict
activities, the entire administration was reformed within a year.
Mantro had already heard of the atrocities of Pidagaikarar and the
distresses inflicted on the lower caste peoples.18
While Karnal Mantro was staying at the Udayagiri Fort, some leaders
of Pidagai entered into the Fort without any information and permission and tried to
meet him. On hearing their arrogant activities, Mantro closed the Fort entrance and
ordered to arrest them. The drum, sticks and emblems brought by them were broken
by the officials. Further, the devils rule prevailed in Thiruvithancore was stopped by
Mantro in 1811. Because of the abolition of Pidagai method, the problems of other
caste peoples except Brahmins and Suthirar were brought to the direct attention of the
Government. Through this, Thahsildars, Parvathikarars and National guards to protect
the lands were appointed in the Revenue department. At the same time Mantro had
established judicial Courts and separated the judiciary from Pidagai. Pidagai method
was totally abolished by Mantro. But the Youngster’s Sangams created by the
Pidagaikarar continued to give distress to the oppressed people.
Veluthambi Thalavai
Veluthambi Thalavai was born at Thalakulam near Eraniel in
Kanyakumari District to the parents Kunnumayari Pillai and Thalakulam Valliammai
Pillai Thankachi in Nair family on 23 rd of Chithirai 1765. In the year 1783, while the
king Karthigai Thirunal Ramavarma was staying at Padmanabapuram, his jewels and
sword were stolen away. The responsibility of tracing and recovering them was
entrusted with Veluthambi who was considered a militant youth among youngsters.
Veluthambi strenuously acted and recovered the stolen items and submitted them to
the king. From that day, a strong relation took place between Veluthambi and the
Palace. The king appointed Veluthambi as a tax collecting official in Haranya
Nallur(Eraniel).
The 16 year old Avittam Thirunal Balaramavarma became the king
when Karthigai Thirunal Ramavarma died on 17-2-1798. He ruled from 1798 to 1810.
Veluthambi developed close relationship with his Father-in-Law Jeyanthan Sankaran
Namboodri. After the death of then Dewan Kesavadass, Jeyanthan Sankaran
Namboodri declared himself as Thalavai and he imposed tax burden on the people in
a short period. Because of this, the people got angered against Dewan and expressed
opposition. Veluthambi utilized this opportunity and he gathered thousands of people
from Nanjilnadu, went in a procession to Thiruvananthapuram and siege the palace19
demanding removal of Dewan. Finding the rage of the people with weapons, the king
called Veluthambi and accepted to remove Jeyanthan Sankaran Namboodri.
Namboodri was removed from the post on 20 th June 1799 and appointed Ayyappan
Senbagaraman Pillai as Dewan and Veluthambi as Minister of Commercial Tax.
Ayyappan Senbagaraman remained as Dewan for a short period. After him Parasalai
Padmanaban Senbagaraman Pillai was appointed as Dewan by the king. Veluthambi
was appointed in a higher post called Sarvathiharam in 1801.
Veluthambi who was actively anticipating the post of Dewan, started to
device conspiracy within the palace. Important palace officials Kunjuneelan
Pillai(Accountant) and Muthupillai(Political Advisor) helped Veluthambi in his plans.
As the king was a minor, Veluthambi had brought all the powers of the palace into his
control and in 1802, became Dewan with the recommendation of British official
Macaulay. Latter he was called Veluthambi Thalavai.
Dewan Veluthambi Thalavai wanted to make many reforms on
reaching the power. As thieves were given severe punishment, the people lived
without fear of theft. Private lands measured, trees counted and a new tax form
Kandezhuthu was introduced. For the administrative convenience, the allowances of
Government employees were reduced. Hence in 1802, the army men entered into a
mutiny.
Because of the mutiny of army in 1802, Veluthambi formed a Nair
Army to protect the country. Here also problem developed because of the economical
debacle. Veluthambi reduced the wages of Army men. He declared this action was
necessitated to pay the arrears to the East India Company. Enraged over this, the Nair
Army men started a revolution in 1804. As per the advice of the political opponents of
Veluthambi, nearly 10,000 men paraded to Thiruvananthapuram. They opened the
jails and released the inmates. They decided to kill Veluthambi and Macaulay. They
insisted the king to remove Thalavai from the post immediately. King was upset
without knowing what to do. Veluthambi surrendered before Macaulay when the Nair
Army created by him was trying to kill him from Alapuzhai. On 16 th November 1804,
Macaulay had moved a part of East India Company Army from Kochi to Kollam and
from Thirunelveli to Thiruvananthapuram and suppressed the revolt.20
Effort of Veluthambi to kill Macaulay
Veluthambi wrote letter to the head of East India Company,
condemning the intervention of Macaulay in the internal affairs of Thiruvithancore.
Because of this, the enmity between Veluthambi and Macaulay had increased.
Veluthambi wanted to fight with Macaulay immediately. He released an advertisement
from Kundarai on 11-1-1809 with the aim to gather the people against the British to
revenge Karnal Macaulay. The wordings in the advertisement remained in such a way
to instigate religious rage.
Cruelties of Veluthambi
Veluthambi was the first man in Thiruvithancore to induce the people
in the name of caste and religion for the purpose of political gains. Among the many
cruelties he did to this country, the worst was the sowing of seed in the name of caste,
religion and language. The seed of religious aversion sowed at that time has been let
loose in recent times to suit the situation. In Kerala and Kanyakumari it totally
expanded and stabilised. He is the father of today’s caste revolts.
Thollseelai Struggle
During the tenure of Marthandavarma, a ban was introduced
prohibiting the oppressed women from wearing top dress.
A writer from abroad Cross had written that the breasts of a woman
who lived in Europe for sometime was cut as she came in front of the Queen of
Attingal with top dress as was followed in Europe.
Top dress struggle
Of the restrictions imposed on the oppressed caste people in
Thiruvithancore, the important one was the dress code restrictions. The oppressed
caste people should not wear any dress above the hip. Even the girls of them were not
given the right to wear any dress covering their breast, a symbol of culture. But the21
higher caste women were permitted to wear a shawl like dress covering the breasts
from the shoulder. That top dress was the only distinguishing emblem to identify the
upper caste from lower caste.
Commenced as a small revolt in a village Kothanar Vilai in March
1822, this agitation continued for about 37 years continuously and which can be
divided into three stages. First stage was held from 1822 to 1823, second stage from
1827 to 1829 and the third stage from 1858 to 1859.
First stage Agitation
This agitation commenced in May 1822 in Kalkulam and Eraniel
Taluks. To find a solution to this problem, Meet Iyer had submitted a petition to the
English representative Karnal Newall. Karnal Newall requested the Padmanabapuram
Court to peruse and order judgment on this problem. The Court after enquiring the
case had delivered a judgment in May 1823 in favour of Christians.
Second stage agitation
Second stage agitation started in 1827. In this agitation, the most
affected places were Attoor, Thirparappu, Kannanur, Arumanai, Udayarvilai and
Pulippanam.
The Government orders issued in the year 1829 could not find a
permanent solution to the top dress issue. This order made the Christian Nadar
Women dissatisfied. Hence this problem again emerged after some time. Christian
Nadar women wore another top dress, like before, over the kuppayam in violation of
the Government orders. In the midst, Hindu Nadar women also started wearing the
top dress by the courage and confidence inducted by a Hindu revolutionist
Muthukutty Swamigal. Nair caste people indulged in stopping this.22
Third stage agitation
Third stage agitation started afterwards. After the published declaration
of Queen Victoria in the year 1858, this agitation got vigorous. Agitation started in
Neyyatinkarai and spread to Parasalai and Neyyur. In markets and shopping areas, the
top dress worn Hindu Nadar women were attacked. Their top dress was torn out.
Agitators entered into Neyyur and beaten up the people they encountered. The men
hid themselves for fear of attack. Women and children took shelter in the Mission
Bungalow. Some officials had cut and taken away a big tree of Gurubatham priest
without paying the price. When obstructed this, they had beaten up him and his wife
and son until they fell unconscious. Four Christians of Kallanguzhi were taken in the
pretext of some Government works, but were beaten up and kept under custody and
released after some days. One person was killed. After two days a temple also was
burnt down.
In December 30, there was a big clash in the shopping area of Kottar.
Hindu Nadars joined hands with Christians in this and conducted counter attack.
At this stage the then Missionaries, Kokks Iyer, Russel Iyer,
Whitehouse Iyer, Louis Iyer and Peliss Iyer took heavy pains to suppress the agitation.
Thiruvithancore Dewan and the King have half heartedly accepted to
comply with the request of Nadar caste people because of the insistence of British
Government. Based on this, an authorized communication was published on 26 th July
1859. Nadar women of all religions was allowed to wear a kuppayam like Christian
women or coarse dress like fisherwomen, but they should not wear top dress like
upper caste women and there was no objection to cover the breasts in any form.
Women equal rights agitation
It was reported in the wise crack part of the Indian Express on 1-5-
2002 that the thinking of a woman after she awake in the morning is, what kind of
dress she wish to wear on that day. Dress to the body is more important than food.23
There was no surprise in the courageous agitation of Thiruvithancore women for their
rights.
Publication of Queen Victoria
British Government had directly taken over the rule of India from the
East India Company in 1858. British Queen Victoria had delivered an address in the
England Parliament to the people of the countries under her rule on 1 st November
1858 as below:
“One society or Government should not interfere into the religious regulations or
social restrictions of other society. Government servants should not intervene and
discriminate anybody in the customary affairs that is being followed in the respective
societies. The violators of this order would be punished.”
This declaration was sent to the King of Thiruvithancore by the
Governor of Chennai.
Revolt
The declaration of the Queen was taken by both sides in their favour.
Peoples again indulged in heavy revolts by casting explanations that, through the
declaration of the Queen that one’s religious regulations or social restrictions should
not be interfered with, the Queen supports their activities and violence. Christian
women dressed themselves to their wishes stating that they have the right derived
from their religious regulations. So violence spread to all the areas.
According to Koji Kavashahi, the notification of the Queen of
England was just like adding fuel to the fire to the on going Thiruvithancore revolt.
The revelers were very eager to see the Christian women in their old condition by
claiming that “the Queen through her declaration had conveyed her dissatisfaction
over the activities of the Missionaries; the British Queen had given the rights to the24
people of Thiruvithancore to safeguard our culture; so it is the apt occasion to
safeguard our social custom by not allowing the Sanatties to cover their breasts.”
Therefore the cruelty of tearing the blouses of women by entering into the house got
aggravated.
Government intervention
As Karnal Kallan was continuing as Thiruvithancore Resident for
nearly 10 years from1840, the Missionaries thought that Kallan was acting in a
manner to satisfy the Government and the upper caste people. The Missionaries felt
that the activities of Kallan were not in support of their demands. But Resident Kallan
was in belief that the Missionaries were the reason for the dressing of Hindu Nadar
women by covering their breasts and for the commencement of revolt.
The victory of women’s equal rights agitation
The release of the publicity of the king Uthiram Thirunal
Marthandavarma on 26-11-1859 was a milestone on the growth of culture of Nadar
People. It was said in the same “Hindu Nadar women also wear blouse like Christian
Nadar women and wear coarse dress around the neck and covering the breasts.
Further, the Nadar women are permitted to dress covering the breasts but in other
forms than the Nair women.” The actions of this publicity were released in a book by
the British Government on 6-8-1859. The above publicity was for the Nadar women
only, and the women of Eazhavar, Parayar, Pulayar etc. were not given the rights to
dress covering the breasts. So the Missionaries not satisfied with this publicity, had
taken efforts for Government notification for these people.
On seeing the Nadar women moving the streets with neat dress, the
Eazhava people came forward to fight for their rights. The Missionaries, who
supported the reasonable agitation of the people, had written to the Governor of
Chennai Dilivalian requesting for insisting the King on the right of people to dress.
He had written letter to the new Thiruvithancore Resident F.N.Maltfy requesting to
proceed with action. Accepting the request of Maltfy, the King Aiylyam Thirunal had
issued a notification in 1865 that there was no impediment to all society people of25
Thiruvithancore including Eazhavar, Parayar and Pulayar to dress covering the
breasts. By this, the agitation held for about 43 years in Thiruvithancore for the equal
rights of women came to an end.
The dress agitation got its victory as it was guided by the God through
his words “I was without dress, but you gave me dress” and his Missionaries along
with the joint agitation of Christians and other than Christian Nadar women and men.
By the rights got through the Christian Missionaries on that day, the women of today
wears silky variety dresses by covering their body and move beautifully in the
cultured world.
Temple entry agitation
Stone transport for temple, mortar plastering for temple and building
the temple are all done by oppressed people. The statue of the installed God is also the
architectural work of them. But a rule was devised prohibiting the entry of them
inside the temple. All the oppressed people protested this. In particular the Nadar
people who did all works went on agitation.
Condition of temple on that day
They were denied worship in the temple. The Brahmins who had no
link with the temple did the pooja works. Nair was allowed next to them. The last row
was Vellalar. Nadar, Eazhavar etc. had to stand 12 feet away from the temple
surrounding. Harijans had to stand 62 feet away.
The temple entry agitation commenced by Nadars at the middle of 19 th
century had aroused with new life under the leadership of Eazhavas at the start of 20 th
century. In the year 1905, an Ezhavar called Kochu Kunju Sanar, who was a member
of Sri Moolam Popular Assembly, had raised the matter of allowing the Eazhavas near
the roads of Haripad temple in the Assembly. Other Eazhava members S.Kumaravelu
Panicker, V.R.K.Vaithyian and K.R.Panicker have also argued in the Assembly about
the use of temple roads and entry into the temple.26
The editor of the weekly Desabimani had written about the temple
entry in the issue of December 1917. He also submitted a memorandum before the Sri
Moolam Popular Assembly requesting the entry into the temple.
With the blessings of Mahathma Gandhi, the agitation started on the
scheduled day. Gandhiji had advised the followers about the agitation methods. The
agitation methods were changed accordingly. Narayanaguru not only encouraged the
agitators but also had donated Rs.1000/-. Periyar E.V.Ramasamy Naicker of
Tamilnadu had also came with hundreds of followers and extended his full
cooperation. He also took part in the agitation, jailed and earned the honour of Hero
of Vaikom.
In March 1925, Gandhiji came over to the agitation field, met them and
encouraged them. Then he went to Varkalai to meet Narayanaguru. Eazhava people
met him at that time and given a petition about their problems. He explained the stand
of the Queen to them. He said the Queen considers it necessary to open the temple
roads to all communities, but she remains unable to do anything until there is a change
in the mentality of the people. In November 1925, the Queen notified that all the
Hindus can use the roads used by the Christians and Muslims without any religious
difference, but the temple precincts should only be used by the upper caste Hindus.
The banned roads of three sides surrounding the Vaikom temple were opened. But the
road in the eastern side remained closed to the oppressed caste Hindus and other
religion people. The agitators continued with their agitation on the eastern side. As per
the advice of Mahathma Gandhi, the agitation was given up on November 23. But this
concession was not given to other temples of Thiruvithancore.
After some days, the leader of agitation committee Gandhidass had
announced that the agitation would commence on the eastern side of the temple. The
upper caste people had indulged in anticipatory activities to defeat their efforts.
District Magistrate had issued ban orders on the agitation leaders. However the
agitators under the leadership of Gandhidass tried to enter into the temple precincts.
The struggle of the agitators trying to enter the banned area violating the ban order
and the stopping of them by anti agitation group, continued for some days.
E.V.Ramasamy Periyar also took part in the agitation.27
In May 1930, the agitation was again started. Eravipudur Gandhiraman
Pillai who took part in the previous agitation now led the agitation. He and his
followers who tried to enter into the banned area were arrested. One year
imprisonment was ordered to Gandhiraman Pillai. But the High Court not only
acquitted him but also ordered to permit all the people without any religious
differences to use the streets in Suchindram. After this judgment, the oppressed
people, without any obstruction, had used the streets for about a week. But during the
festival, the Superintendent of Police Pichu Iyengar brought a special police force and
prohibited the movement of the oppressed people in the streets. So Gandhiraman
Pillai again planned to commence the agitation on 9 th Feb 1931. Again the tense
situation started. But after some days the agitation had weakened. In the year 1931,
another big agitation commenced in front of Guruvayur temple demanding entry into
the temple. This agitation continued for about a year but it also failed. However,
though the immediate aim of entering the temple was not fulfilled, it greatly
succeeded in awakening the sentiments of the people against untouchability.
At this confused situation, the Dewan Sir C.P.Ramaswamy Iyer who
realized the great danger awaiting the Hindu Religion, came forward to act swiftly.
At last, the Government surrendered to the demand of the people. On his 25 th birth
day, 12 th November 1936, the King Chithrai Thirunal released the historic fame
temple entry declaration. By this, a full stop was affixed to the many century old big
injustice practiced in Thiruvithancore. C.Rajagopalachari described this as an ahimsa
revolution without blood shed happened in the recent times of human history.
Prior to the year 1887, only the upper caste Hindus were able to
worship the Arya Gods of Shiva, Vishnu etc. in Thiruvithancore. Lower caste
oppressed Hindu people could only worship the small deities like samundi, kali,
moden etc. Lower caste people should not be seen to the eyes of upper caste people.
Even the shadow should not touch the upper caste people. Moreover, there was a plan
to make a peculiar noise from behind a hidden place to show his identity.
To liberate from such cruelty, individual agitators and many
organizations came in. Bagavan Vaikunta swamigal, Sri Narayanaguru, Iyengali, Paul28
V.Daniel, Kumarithanthai Marshal Nesamani are some of the individual important
agitators. Among these, Marshal Nesamani led the joint agitation.
Slaves
While talking to their masters, the slaves had to cover their mouth with
hand. While tanks or dams breaches, it was the practice prevailed to push the slaves
into the breach and bury them there.
The slaves of Thiruvithancore were sold at the price range of Rs.3, 6 &
18. Women were sold at half the rate of man. Slaves lived at a long distance in slum
area from the living area of upper caste.
According to Francis Pukkanan, the transaction of slaves took place in
three methods. The first method was called Genmam, which means purchase at a
price. Purchasing the slave by paying the entire cost was called as Genmam. The
method of getting two third of the cost of slave and give up him was called Kanam or
pledging. The person who took the slave on pledge had to pay the pledged some rice
annually. The slaves could be received back on re-payment of pledged amount. The
third method of transaction of slaves was Pattam or letting on lease. The person who
bought the slaves in this method had to make a particular amount annually to the
lesser. The annual lease amount for a gents slave was 8 panam and it was 4 panam for
lady slaves.
As the slaves were sold and purchased like animals, they were unable
to live a disciplined family life. Separation of wife from husband and selling to
another master and separation of children from parents were regular routine incidents.
The master who purchased the slave’s wife could send her as wife to another slave.
The masters had the rights to beat, sever the hand or leg and kill the slaves. Masters
generally don’t give enough food to the slaves.29
Abolition of slavery
In the year 1843, the British Government enacted a Law for the
abolition of slavery in India. But that Law did not bind the separate country of
Thiruvithancore.
As there was no other way, the King finally had published a
historically important order about the abolition of slavery in the year 1853. It was said
in this order that the children born to the Government slaves after 15 th September
1853 would be considered independent man and some concession would be given to
other slaves. It also banned the selling of children without concurrence of parents. But
this order did not entirely liberate the slaves. They were not given equal rights before
the Law. In June 1855, the King had issued an order fully liberating the slaves. By this
the abolition of bondage system was legally accepted in Thiruvithancore. More than
10,000 slaves were liberated in Thiruvithancore. The right to property was also
allowed.
Free Labour
Lower caste people were compelled to do free labour to the
Government, temples and upper caste peoples. As the Government, temples and
Brahmins were the owners of the lands, they were called landlords and these peoples
as lessees.
Sahudi
They planned to seize all the lands of oppressed Tamil people. Many
toiled Asans were killed. Their lands were confiscated and this land was named as
Sagudi.
Pogudi
The hard worked people were chased to other countries and named as
Pogudi.30
Girl’s learning was banned. The practice of marriage among the
matured people was changed and child marriage was introduced. The life of women
got shrunk within four walls of the house. Widow marriage was refused. Moreover
she was considered as a curse and subjected to aversion by the society. The
Thiruvithancore once called as Darma boomi became Adharma boomi by these
reasons.
Letting out the land for low rate of lease to do work without wages was
called viruthi. The persons who got land under this were viruthikarar. Palviruthi to
supply milk to temples and Vediviruthi to conduct fireworks during festive seasons
were given. The viruthi given for the supply of boats during festive seasons was
called vallaviruthi. The works of constructing fence to lands, loading and unloading
in carts, supply of grass to the King’s horses, repairing of Government buildings and
watchman duty was carried out by the viruthikarar without getting any wages.
The duty of viruthikarar did not end with the free labour. They had to
supply their goods free of cost. It was also the duty of viruthikarar to supply leaf for
writing, supply of oil, garland, milk etc. to the temples, supply of vegetables and
firewood to the kitchens and supply of coconut leaves to the Government elephants.
As the touching of lower caste people, seeing them and approaching
near them were considered a taboo, these people did not approach the upper caste
people nearer than a specified distance. Nadar or Eazhavar community people could
stand 36 feet away from Brahmins and 12 feet away from Nair. The minimum
distance between Pulayar and Brahmin was 96 feet and between Pulayar and Nair was
60 feet.
If an upper caste man comes opposite when a lower caste man was
walking on a road, the lower caste man had to go down the road and stand there until
the upper caste man pass through that place. When he fails to do this, severe
punishment was awarded. A Nair had the right to kill that person cutting him with a
sword at that place. The Nair had no right to forgive a person who violates this rule. If
he forgives him, the Nair would be awarded with death sentence by the King.31
The lower caste people had no permission to visit the Government
buildings, Palace and choultries which are used by upper caste people. They had to
stand 50 to 60 feet away from Government offices and Courts.
Lower caste people were prohibited from wearing the jewels made of
costly metals like gold and silver. They had no permission to walk with an umbrella,
whether it was scorching sun or pouring rain. They should not use footwear. Metal
utensils should not be used. To rear milch cows, using vehicles for transport and
living in tiled houses were not permitted. It was declared that the living huts of
Fishermen should not be more than three feet in height. The sheds put up for marriage
should not be decorated.
Tax severity
Women had to pay thali tax for wearing it. For wearing some sort of
dresses and jewels, tax had to be paid. Permission had to be got by paying money to
the Government to wear cap on the head, to use umbrella, to go in a pallakku, to grow
mustache and to conduct marriage. For the hair on the head and for the breasts of
women, tax had to be paid. The women in the age group of 16 to 35 years had to pay
this tax. It is said that a woman hailing from Shertallai had cut her breasts in protest to
this tax and thrown it in front of the tax collecting official and died. That place is
called until today as Mulachi Parambu.
Economically the Nadar community suffered many hardships. They
had to loose a major portion of their income in the name of penalty, tax and donation.
The most severe was the compensatory measure. The penalty amount paid by the
convicted persons to the Government was called compensation. In the name of
compensation, the Government officials used to collect any amount as they wish.
The Poll Tax was another tax which made the Nadar community to
suffer much. This tax was collected from all the men in the age group of 16 and 60
years. The relatives had to pay this tax for the dead also. Because of the incapacity to32
pay this tax, many families migrated to the nearby Tamilnadu state. The Government
was vigorous to collect this tax even from the relatives of such migrated people.
Apart from the poll tax, some other taxes such as professional tax,
house tax, property tax etc. were also collected from the Nadar community. For the
ladder used by them to climb the Palmyra tree, a tax known as Enikkanam and
Thalaikanam were collected.
From the producers of toddy, a nazhi to each pot of toddy was
collected as tax. A house tax known as Kuppa Katcha at the rate of one panam for
each hut was also collected. At the time of change of roof to the house, a tax known as
manai meipan kollumirai was collected. They had to pay tax to their land and the
trees such as Palmyra, coconut, arecanut, mango, jack, tamarind, Alexandrian laurel
etc. which grow there.
The people who failed to pay tax were subjected to severe
punishments. They were subjected to harassments like standing in the sunlight for
hours with heavy stones on their back, hanging red hot iron rod inserted in the ear and
jailing with harsh treatment.
The name chanar was brought into practice to the Nadar in the 16 th ,
17 th century. The south Thiruvithancore Nadar could not name their children perumal
or to name their houses as complexes.
Because of the tax burden, they got charred. Tax was imposed on thali,
head and Palmyra.
Vaikunda explains the sufferings of the clergy as below:
Eapuli pol neesan eayiapolay santor
Naipulipol neeson nallaru pol santor
Bagavan Vaikundar was born in 1809 to bring the people to the shore
from their sea of sufferings.33
Everyone had to pay tax separately for their profession and for the
tools they use for this purpose. Whether he is a musician or a dancer, one has to pay
tax. Grass cutter or porter, he too had to pay tax.
The tax collecting official had collected the tax manifold than the
specified amount, but issued receipt to a lesser amount. At one time, 50 sakkaram was
compulsorily collected from a Pulayan instead of only 2 sakkaram. To evade the
payment of such higher than prescribed amount of tax, people used to pay bribe to the
tax collecting officials.
At one time 18 families of Thamaraikulam were compelled by the
officials to make payment of 112.5 panam intended for the tax amount of a whole year
through the village head Gurusamy. As one of them had pleaded his inability to make
payment of the entire amount in one lump sum and requested for making a monthly
payment, red hot rod was inserted in his ear and allowed to hang there for 80 minutes.
Other two persons of the same village Narayanan and Maraperumal were subjected to
this punishment for two hours. Many people of south Thiruvithancore were given
such punishment as a routine. If any petition was given highlighting this harassment,
the officials refuse to receive the same. Thus the major part of the income of lower
caste people was not only sucked by the Government and higher officials but also the
lower caste people had to bear with the harassment of the higher officials.
The Tamil people, who bear with such sufferings, had started agitation
campaigns. The seed of agitation was sown by the western missionaries. The agitation
was inaugurated by saints and incarnations like Ayya Vaikundar, Narayanaguru,
Iyengali. But Kumarithanthai Nesamani had created political party and converted the
agitation into a cyclone and brought the victory. To say in short, the missionaries had
sowed the seed for the agitation. Agitation was grown by Vaikunda swamigal.
Kumarithanthai Nesamani converted this into a political movement and brought it to a
victorious end.3435

Author : P.L.Subila

Commodity traders are responsible for oil prices by bidding on oil futures contracts. These contracts are basically agreements to buy or sell oil at a specific date in the future for an agreed-upon price. These futures contracts are executed on the floor of a commodity exchange by traders who are registered with the Commodities Futures Trading Commission. Commodities have been traded for more than 100 years, and have been regulated by the CFTC since the 1920s. 

Commodities traders fall into two categories. Most are representatives of companies who actually use oil. They buy oil for delivery at a future date at the fixed price. That way, they know the price of the oil, can plan for it financially, and therefore reduce (or hedge) the risk to their corporations. Traders in the second category are actual speculators. Their only motive is to make money from changes in the price of oil.

What Factors Do Traders Use To Determine Oil Prices?

There are many factors that commodities traders look at when developing the bids that create oil prices:

• Current supply in terms of output, especially the production quota set by OPEC. If traders believe supply will decline, they bid the price up. If they believe supply will increase, they willing to pay as much for oil, and the price falls.

• Oil reserves, including what is available in U.S. refineries and what is stored at theStrategic Petroleum Reserves. These reserves can be accessed very easily, and can add to the oil supply if prices get too high. Saudi Arabia also has a large reserve capacity. If it promises to tap those reserves, traders allow oil prices to fall.

• Oil demand, particularly from the U.S. These estimates are provided monthly by the Energy Information Agency . Demand usually rises during the summer vacation driving season. To predict summer-time demand, forecasts for travel from AAA are used to determine potential gasoline use. During the winter, weather forecasts are used to determine potential home heating oil use.

The Effect of World Crises on the Price of Oil

Of course, potential world crises in oil-producing countries can also dramatically increase oil prices. That's usually because traders anticipate the crisis will limit supply. This happened in January 2012, after inspectors found more proof that Iran was closer to building nuclear weapons capabilities. The U.S. and European Union began financial sanctions, which escalated to Iran threatening to close the Straits of Hormuz. The U.S. responded with a promise to reopen the Strait with military force if necessary. The possibility of an Israeli strike was also a concern.

As a result, oil prices bounced around $95-$100 a barrel from November through January. In mid-February, oil broke above $100 a barrel and stayed there. Gas prices also went to $3.50 a gallon.

Forecasts were that gas would be at least $4.00 a gallon through the summer driving season. (Source: New York Times, Iran News; Energy Information Administration, Cushing WTI Spot Price)
World unrest also caused oil prices to rise in the spring of 2011. In March 2011, investors became concerned about unrest in Libya, Egypt and Tunisia in what became known as the Arab Spring. Oil prices rose above $100 a barrel in early March, reaching its peak of $113 a barrel in late April.

The Arab Spring revolts lasted through the summer, and resulted in an overturn of dictators in those countries. At first, commodities traders were worried that the Arab Spring would disrupt oil supplies. However, as that didn't happen, the price of oil returned to below $100 a barrel by mid-June.

Oil prices also increased $10 a barrel in July 2006 when the Israel-Lebanon war raised fears of a potential threat of war with Iran. Oil rose from its target of $70 a barrel in May to record-high of $77 a barrel by late July.

Effect of Disasters on Oil Prices

Natural and man-made disasters can drive up oil prices if they are dramatic enough. Hurricane Katrina caused oil prices to rise $3 a barrel, and gas prices to reach $5 a gallon in 2005. Katrina affected 19% of the nation's oil production. It came on the heels of Hurricane Rita. Between the two, 113 offshore oil and gas platforms were destroyed, and 457 oil and gas pipelines were damaged.
In May 2011, the Mississippi River flooding caused gas prices to rise to $3.98 a gallon. Traders were concerned the flooding would damage oil refineries.

On the other hand, the Exxon-Valdez oil spill did not cause oil prices to rise. One reason was because oil prices in 1989 were only around $20 a barrel. The other was that only 250,000 barrels were spilled. Although this had a devastating impact on the Alaskan coastline, it didn't really threaten world supply.

The BP oil spill spewed more than 18 times the oil than did the Exxon Valdez. Yet, oil and gas prices barely budged as a result. Why? For one thing, global demand was down thanks to a slow recovery from the 2008 financial crisis and recession. Second, even though 174 million gallons of oil was spilled, it was over a long period of time, and it wasn't a large percentage of total oil used by the U.S. In fact, it was only about 9 days worth of oil. The U.S. consumed 6.99 billion barrels in 2010, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. That's a little over 19 million barrels per day. 

(Article updated February 22, 2012)

Source : about.com